Comparative Study of Soxhlet Extraction and Hydraulic Pressing for Biokerosene Production from Rubber Seeds (Hevea brasiliensis)

Indah Retno Wulandary; Abubakar Tuhuloula; Meilana Dharma Putra; Dewi Dheana Herman; Anisa Maghfirah; Marliana Hartania; Nur Ainah

doi:10.31315/eksergi.v23i2.16489

Authors

Indah Retno Wulandary Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Lambung Mangkurat, Banjarbaru, South Kalimantan, 70714, Indonesia
Abubakar Tuhuloula Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Lambung Mangkurat, Banjarbaru, South Kalimantan, 70714, Indonesia
Meilana Dharma Putra Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Lambung Mangkurat, Banjarbaru, South Kalimantan, 70714, Indonesia
Dewi Dheana Herman Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Lambung Mangkurat, Banjarbaru, South Kalimantan, 70714, Indonesia
Anisa Maghfirah Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Lambung Mangkurat, Banjarbaru, South Kalimantan, 70714, Indonesia
Marliana Hartania Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Lambung Mangkurat, Banjarbaru, South Kalimantan, 70714, Indonesia
Nur Ainah Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Lambung Mangkurat, Banjarbaru, South Kalimantan, 70714, Indonesia

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.31315/eksergi.v23i2.16489

Abstract

Biokerosene is a renewable alternative to fossil-based kerosene, derived from biological resources such as rubber seeds. This study evaluates the effects of Soxhlet extraction and hydraulic pressing on biokerosene production, including the influence of stirring speed during degumming and the physicochemical characteristics of the product. Rubber seed masses of 50, 75, and 100 g were tested, with degumming conducted at 150 and 300 rpm. The highest oil yield (46%) was obtained using Soxhlet extraction at 50 g. However, superior product quality was achieved through hydraulic pressing at 75 g and 150 rpm, yielding the lowest free fatty acid (FFA) value (4.47 mg KOH/g) and the highest proportion of C10–C16 hydrocarbons (56.54%). The resulting biokerosene exhibited densities of 913.8–929.4 kg/m³ and viscosities of 2.6–3.6 cSt. These findings indicate that Soxhlet extraction is more effective for maximizing yield, while hydraulic pressing produces higher quality intermediates that are better suited for downstream upgrading into aviation fuel.

References

Agrawal, K., & Verma, P. (2024). Biotechnological advances in biorefinery. Springer Nature.

Aigbodion, A. I., & Bakare, I. O. (2005). Rubber seed oil quality assessment and authentication. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society, 82, 465–469. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11746-005-1095-0

Alam, M. A., Uddin, M. T., Tasnim, K. T., Sarker, S. S., Razzaq, M. A., Kabir, M. A., Sujan, S. A., & Mondal, A. K. (2024). Comparative evaluation of physicochemical and antimicrobial properties of rubber seed oil from different regions of Bangladesh. Heliyon, 10(4), e25544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e25544

Alkhoori, S., Khaleel, M., Vega, L. F., & Polychronopoulou, K. (2023). Deoxygenation of vegetable oils and fatty acids: How can we steer the reaction selectivity towards diesel range hydrocarbons? Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. 127, 36-61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2023.07.031

ASTM International. (2023). ASTM D6751-23: Standard Specification for Biodiesel Fuel Blend Stock (B100) for Middle Distillate Fuels. ASTM International.

ASTM International. (2024). ASTM D7566-24: Standard Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuel Containing Synthesized Hydrocarbons. ASTM International.

ASTM International. (2025). ASTM D1655-25a: Standard Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuels. ASTM International.

Asuquo, J. E., Anusiem, A. C. I., & Etim, E. E. (2012). Extraction and characterization of rubber seed oil. International Journal of Modern Chemistry, 1(3), 123–130.

Babatunde, E. O., & Ogunkunle, O. (2022). Optimization and kinetic studies on conversion of rubber seed (Hevea brasiliensis) oil to methyl esters over a green biowaste catalyst. Journal of Environmental Management, 268, 110705.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110705

Baidoo, M. F., Adjei, E. A., & Aidam, G. S. K. (2022). Rubber seed oil: Potential feedstock for aviation biofuel production. Scientific African, 17, e01393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2022.e01393

Chen, J., & Wang, H. (2023). Tuning the selectivity of natural oils and fatty acids/esters deoxygenation to biofuels and fatty alcohols: A review. Green Energy and Environment, 8(3), 722-743. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gee.2022.03.001

De Castro, M. L., & Garcıa-Ayuso, L. E. (1998). Soxhlet extraction of solid materials: an outdated technique with a promising innovative future. Analytica Chimica Acta, 369(1-2), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0003-2670(98)00233-5

Directorate General of Oil and Gas, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, Republic of Indonesia. (1990). Decree No. 21K/72/DDJM/1990 on kerosene fuel specifications.

Eller, Z., Varga, Z., & Hancsók, J. (2016). Catalytic upgrading of vegetable oils into jet fuels range hydrocarbons using heterogeneous catalysts: A review. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 41, 1-11.

Galadima, A., & Muraza, O. (2015). Catalytic upgrading of vegetable oils into jet fuels range hydrocarbons using heterogeneous catalysts: A review. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 29, 12-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2015.03.030

International Energy Agency. (2025). Global Energy Review 2025: Global Trends and CO2 Emissions. IEA.

IUPAC. (2025). Soxhlet extraction. In IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology (5th ed.). International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. https://doi.org/10.1351/goldbook.10228

Khan, S., Kay Lup, A. N., Qureshi, K. M., Abnisa, F., Wan Daud, W. M. A., & Patah, M. F. A. (2019). A review on deoxygenation of triglycerides for jet fuel range hydrocarbons. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 140, 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2019.03.008

Llamas, A., García-Martínez, M. J., Morales, A. M., Cerdán, L., & López, M. (2012). Biokerosene from coconut and palm kernel oils. Fuel, 102, 483–490. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2012.06.108

Mahreni, M., Reningtyas, R., & Ikhsan, M. A. (2024). Kemajuan terkini dalam ekstraksi senyawa bioaktif dari biji-bijian (review). Eksergi, 21(2). https://doi.org/10.31315/e.v21i2.12496

Maulana, A. R., & Setyoningrum, T. M. (2019). Production of biodiesel from coconut waste by in-situ transesterification method and catalyst calcium oxide. Eksergi, 16(1). https://doi.org/10.31315/e.v16i1.2526

Morshed, M., Ferdous, K., Rahman, M. K., Mazumder, M. S. I., Islam, M. A., & Uddin, M. D. T. (2011). Rubber seed oil as a potential source for biodiesel production. Fuel, 90(10), 2981–2986. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2011.05.020

Muhammad, Q., et al. (2019). Renewable aviation fuel by advanced hydroprocessing of biomass: Challenges and perspective. Journal of Cleaner Production, 228, 118-132.

Nicholas, D. C., & Kevin, S. (2003). Chemical and functional properties of food lipids. CRC Press.

Onoji, S. E., Iyuke, S. E., & Igbafe, A. I. (2016). Hevea brasiliensis (rubber seed) oil: extraction, characterization, and kinetics of thermo-oxidative degradation using classical chemical methods. Energy & Fuels, 30(12), 10555-10567. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.6b02267

Panjaitan, J. R. H. (2026). Simulation of biodiesel production from waste cooking oil using methanol-activated cao recycling catalyst: kinetic and techno-economic evaluation. Eksergi, 23(1), 23–31. https://doi.org/10.31315/eksergi.v23i1.15839

Rahim, M., & Nadir, M. (2024). Identification of kerosene compounds from used lubricating oil pyrolysis using GC-MS. International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology, 9(12). https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14637045

Salimi, Y. K., Tungadi, R., Liputo, S. A., Kilo, A. K., Rauf, A. N. P., & Dali, I. B. (2025). Physicochemical properties, fatty acid and amino acid profiles, and antioxidant activity of sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.) seed oil and press cake extracted using hydraulic press and soxhlet methods. Trends in Sciences, 22(6), 9690-9690. https://doi.org/10.48048/tis.2025.9690

Santoso, H., Iryanto, & Maria, I. (2014). Effects of extraction parameters on rubber seed oil. Procedia Chemistry, 9, 248–256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proche.2014.05.030

Sisdikarini, D., Sulistiawati, E., Hakika, D. C., & Sulistyo, H. (2024). Purification of crude turpentine oil through acid degumming using phosphoric acid. In BIO Web of Conferences (Vol. 148, p. 01002). EDP Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1051/bioconf/202414801002

Tambunan, D., et al. (2024). Physicochemical characterization of rubber seed oil for biodiesel potential. ROTASI, 26(4), 60–70. https://doi.org/10.14710/rotasi.26.4.60-70

The Business Research Company. (2025). Sustainable Aviation Fuel Global Market Report 2026. TBRC.

Wildan, A., Hartati, I., & Widayat, W. (2013). Proses pengambilan minyak dari limbah padat biji karet dengan metode ekstraksi berpengaduk. Majalah Ilmiah Momentum, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.36499/jim.v9i1.841

World Resources Institute. (2025). State of Clean Energy 2025: Transitioning from Fossil Fuels to Renewables. WRI.

Yang, M., Zhu, W., & Cao, H. (2021). Biorefinery methods for extraction of oil and protein from rubber seed. BioResources and Bioprocessing, 8(1), 45. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40643-021-00386-2

Zhang, M., Wang, C., Xie, Z., Gao, B., & Yu, L. (2024). Chemical structures, analytical approaches and toxicological effects of oxidative derivatives of triglycerides as potential hazards in lipid thermal processing: A review. Grain & Oil Science and Technology, 7(4), 213–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaost.2024.07.001